Despite a number of methodological limitations that prevent generalizing these findings to the larger communities or to high-risk communities in general, they are nonetheless informative. They tell us that parents -- even parents with relatively few social, educational, and economic resources -- are sensitive to maturational changes in their children, and that they are worried. Parents of children less than three years old articulated the very risk conditions and behaviors we would want to identify in order to plan interventions to bolster young children's intellectual and emotional functioning. To some extent, all parents shared these experiences -- for 20 percent, they had become serious concerns.
Perhaps one of the most disheartening findings was the number of parents who described concerns and problems, but could not identify a source of advice or support. This was true for six percent of the problems mentioned by Fremont parents and for 11 percent of the problems described by Lawndale parents. Clearly there is more to do to help parents connect with resources that offer help and support.
The information provided by Fremont and Lawndale parents suggests several ways communities can help "pave the road" to preschool and kindergarten readiness:
For better or worse, other parents are most parents first source of advice and support. Accurate information regarding infants' and toddlers' capabilities and early developmental milestones, coupled with widespread publicity regarding screening, help-lines, and intervention services, is needed to educate all individuals (parents, parents-to-be, as well as educators, policy makers, law enforcement agents, elected officials, community leaders, and the business community), to build community awareness, and to de-stigmatize established but often under-utilized programs for young children and families (Barnard, Morisset, and Spieker, 1993).
The parents in this study were remarkably selective in choosing between health and social services and family centers as sources of help and advice. Are parents (or providers) aware of the potential extensive overlap among these help sources? Trends toward service delivery that focus on families rather than on professional "sub-specialties" should benefit families in many ways. One is that parents gain a single, reliable source of information. "One-stop shopping" has advantages for the provider as well, as services become more comprehensive and well- integrated. The caveat is that providers must be willing to move beyond traditional areas of expertise. To date, too few programs in education, social, or health sciences provide the necessary interdisciplinary training -- a weakness that must be addressed through professional education and in-service opportunities (Scott, Lingaraju, Kilgo, Kregel, and Lazzari, 1993). Parent counseling regarding developmental activities (e.g., Frankenburg and Thorton, 1988) and clinic-based literacy programs (e.g., Needlman, Fried, Morley, Taylor, and Zuckerman, 1991; Needlman and Zuckerman, 1992) illustrate increasing commitment among health care professionals to the prevention of developmental delay. Other cross-discipline programs could be developed to reinforce common goals of early education, health, and social services even further.
Another interdisciplinary link must be strengthened, if not established. One of the most glaring findings of this study was the omission of early childhood education professionals in parents' recognition of help sources. Parents suggested several ways to build this bridge. Among them were the provision of preschool programs at elementary schools, mixed-age after-school programs, and year-round preschool programs.
Over two-thirds of the parents surveyed in each community said they felt they had enough time to provide learning experiences for their children, but most were unsure of what those activities should be. One possibility would be to teach parents (for example, through the use of brief visuals on billboards and public transportation, television, and radio spots) how to capitalize on daily family routines such as mealtimes, shopping, dressing, and bathing to teach shapes, colors, body parts, sharing, turn-taking and waiting, and to discuss each other's day and plan the next.
Play groups, reading programs, and recreation programs could become the focus for providing much of what Fremont and Lawndale parents feel is missing. For example, community-based (e.g., neighborhood or church-based) peer play groups could be designed to provide a safe place for children to play and learn social skills, while providing skill-building opportunities for parents in the context of information exchange, including developmental screening and referral.
Like other behavioral changes our society has made (e.g., reducing smoking and motor vehicle accidents), building strong communities that meet the needs of children and families will also require a broad-based response. In addition to informal supports such as community-based play groups, prevention researchers are developing and testing targeted interventions to promote pro-social behavior (e.g., Webster-Stratton, 1991) and language development of "at-risk" preschool-age children (e.g., Whitehurst, Arnold, Epstein, Angell, Smith, and Fischel, 1993; Whitehurst, Falco, Lonigan, Fischel, DeBaryshe, Valdez-Menchaca, and Caulfield, 1988).
The challenge for caring professionals is to reach beyond traditional roles and to work collaboratively with parents, providers, policy makers, and the public on behalf of infants and young children.
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